The Wars of the Roses: A Queen’s Battle for Survival

The Wars of the Roses were a period of violent and relentless conflict that divided England for over 30 years, from the mid-15th century to the early 16th century. The central battle was for the throne of England, with the House of Lancaster (Margaret’s faction) pitted against the House of York. As the wife of King Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou was

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Time in Daily Life: Work, Social Activities, and Rites of Passage

For most people in medieval Europe, telling time was not as important as it is today. The rhythm of the day was governed more by natural events, like the rising and setting of the sun, and by the religious calendar. For peasants, the division of the day was marked by activities like working the fields, eating meals, and going to church. The seasons

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The Sundial: A Natural Timekeeper

Before the widespread use of mechanical clocks, one of the most common tools for telling time in the daytime was the sundial. A sundial works by casting a shadow from a stick (or gnomon) placed in the center of a circular base, with markings indicating the passage of hours. Sundials had been used since ancient times but remained common throughout t

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